Medieval Indian Sources

Through The Eyes Of Travellers Perceptions Of Society (Intro)

Accounts by foreign travellers who visited the Indian subcontinent during the medieval period are valuable sources for reconstructing its history. These travellers came from different parts of the world for various reasons (trade, pilgrimage, seeking knowledge, or simply curiosity) and recorded their observations about the land, its people, society, economy, and rulers.

Their accounts provide external perspectives that can complement or contrast with indigenous sources (like chronicles, inscriptions, or literature). However, it is important to read these accounts critically, considering the traveller's background, purpose of visit, and potential biases.

Some of the prominent travellers whose accounts shed light on medieval India include Al-Biruni, Ibn Battuta, and François Bernier.

Al-Biruni And The Kitab-Ul-Hind

• Al-Biruni (973-1048 CE) was a scholar from Uzbekistan (Central Asia). He travelled to India in the early 11th century, accompanying Sultan Mahmud of Ghazni.
• He was interested in learning about Indian culture, philosophy, and sciences.
• He authored the famous book 'Kitab-ul-Hind' (also known as 'Tarikh al-Hind' or 'The History of India').
• Kitab-ul-Hind is written in Arabic and covers a wide range of subjects, including Indian philosophy, religion, customs and social practices, weights and measures, astronomy, law, and geography.
• Al-Biruni's approach was scholarly. He relied on Sanskrit texts and consulted local Brahmins to understand Indian traditions and beliefs. He presented his findings in a clear and systematic manner, often comparing Indian practices with those of other cultures.
• His work is particularly valuable for understanding North Indian society and culture during the period of early Turkic invasions.

Ibn Battuta’S Rihla

• Ibn Battuta (1304-1368 CE) was a Moroccan traveller. He arrived in India in the 14th century during the reign of Sultan Muhammad Bin Tughlaq (Delhi Sultanate).
• He stayed in India for several years and was appointed as a Qazi (judge) in Delhi.
• He wrote his travel account in Arabic, titled 'Rihla' (meaning 'Journey').
• Rihla provides extensive details about the social, cultural, economic, and political aspects of the Delhi Sultanate and other parts of India he visited.
• Ibn Battuta described cities, trade routes, markets, postal system, agriculture, social customs, slavery, judicial system, and the lives of common people as well as the ruling elite.
• His account is rich in observations based on his personal experiences and provides lively descriptions of the places and people he encountered.

François Bernier A Doctor With A Difference

• François Bernier (1620-1688 CE) was a French physician and philosopher. He visited India in the 17th century during the reign of the Mughal emperor Shah Jahan and later Dara Shikoh and Aurangzeb.
• He stayed in the Mughal court for about twelve years (1656-1668) and worked as a physician to Prince Dara Shikoh and later as a physician to the Mughal court and a European noble.
• He wrote his observations in the form of letters to prominent individuals in Europe and compiled them into a book titled 'Travels in the Mughal Empire'.
• Bernier's account provides detailed descriptions of the Mughal court, the nobility, the military system, the economy, social customs, and the condition of land ownership in India.
• As a philosopher, Bernier often compared the conditions in India with those in Europe, sometimes presenting a critical view of Mughal society and administration. His account is valuable for understanding the Mughal Empire from a European perspective.

These travellers, with their different backgrounds and purposes, provided diverse perceptions of Indian society during the medieval period, offering valuable but also sometimes subjective insights for historians.

Making Sense Of An Alien World (Travellers)

Foreign travellers visiting medieval India encountered a world that was often vastly different from their own. Their attempts to make sense of this 'alien world' shaped their observations and the way they described Indian society. They often used comparisons with their home countries to understand and explain the unfamiliar.

Al-Biruni And The Sanskritic Tradition

• Al-Biruni's main interest was to understand the Indian intellectual and religious traditions. He approached this by studying Sanskrit texts (Vedas, Puranas, Bhagavad Gita, Patanjali's Yoga Sutra) and interacting with scholars (Brahmins).
• He faced challenges like linguistic differences (Sanskrit vs. Arabic) and differences in beliefs and practices.
• His method was to focus on the texts, seeking understanding through translation and scholarly analysis, rather than just describing his personal experiences.
• He identified several differences between Indian and Islamic societies, such as concepts of purity and pollution, social hierarchy (caste system), and religious rituals. He described the caste system critically, noting the rigid divisions.
• Al-Biruni's account, due to its scholarly approach and reliance on texts, provides a systematic overview of aspects of Indian society and thought as understood by its learned traditions.

Ibn Battuta And The Excitement Of The Unfamiliar

• Ibn Battuta was fascinated by the new and unfamiliar aspects of India. He often described things that were exotic or striking to him.
• He was particularly impressed by the cities, trade, agriculture, communication system (postal service), and the abundance of certain goods.
• He described the coconut and the paan, noting how unusual they were compared to things in his homeland.
• His account is rich in details about trade routes, markets, social customs, food habits, and the lives of people from different social strata, including slaves (who were often used for domestic labour).
• Ibn Battuta's strength lies in providing vivid descriptions of daily life and the physical environment, based on his extensive travels and personal experiences.

Bernier And The “Degenerate” East

• Bernier's account is characterised by a critical perspective on the Mughal Empire, often comparing it unfavourably with the situation in Europe (especially France).
• He presented a picture of the Mughal Empire as a place with excessive royal power, lack of private land ownership, poverty among the masses, and an inefficient administrative system.
• He described what he saw as the negative consequences of Mughal rule, such as the ruin of agriculture and the oppression of peasants.
• Bernier's view was influenced by his European background and his desire to portray the Mughal Empire as a 'degenerate' or backward society compared to his idealised view of Europe.
• While his observations provide valuable information, his interpretations are often biased and should be read with caution. For example, his idea of complete lack of private land ownership has been questioned by historians.

The different perspectives and interests of these travellers (scholarly, experiential, critical) provide historians with varied angles on medieval Indian society. By comparing these accounts with each other and with indigenous sources, historians can gain a more balanced and nuanced understanding of the past.

Reconstructing Histories Of Religious Traditions (Bhakti-Sufi)

Religious traditions, such as the Bhakti movement in Hinduism and the Sufi movement in Islam, were significant social and cultural forces in medieval India. Reconstructing their histories requires studying a variety of sources that reflect their beliefs, practices, and interactions with society.

Sources for Bhakti and Sufi Traditions:

• Compositions of saints: The hymns, poems, and songs composed by Bhakti saints (e.g., Kabir, Nanak, Mirabai, Surdas, Tulsidas) and Sufi saints (e.g., Rumi, Amir Khusrau, compositions in regional languages by various Sufis). These provide insights into their religious ideas, devotion, social criticism, and teachings.
• Hagiographies and biographies: Accounts of the lives of saints written by their followers or later devotees. While often containing legendary elements, they provide information about the saint's life, teachings, miracles, and impact on society. Example: 'Bijak' (compilation of Kabir's verses), 'Guru Granth Sahib' (containing compositions of Guru Nanak and other saints), Sufi hagiographies (e.g., Fawa'id al-Fu'ad, compilation of conversations of Nizamuddin Auliya).
• Oral traditions: Stories, songs, and teachings passed down through generations of followers.
• Architecture: Structures associated with these traditions, such as temples (for Bhakti) and dargahs/khanqahs (shrines and hospices for Sufis).
• Inscriptions and official records: Sometimes, inscriptions mention donations to religious institutions or state patronage of certain saints/traditions. Official chronicles might occasionally refer to the influence of religious figures.
• Travel accounts: Accounts by foreign travellers might mention the presence of ascetics, devotees, or religious centres.

*(Image shows a photograph of a dargah (Sufi shrine) or a temple associated with a Bhakti saint)*

Challenges in Using These Sources:

• Dating: Pinpointing the exact dates of composition of many verses or hagiographies can be difficult, as they were often compiled later.
• Authenticity: Distinguishing the authentic words of a saint from later additions or interpretations can be challenging.
• Hagiographical nature: Hagiographies aim to glorify the saint and may not be strictly historical accounts. They need to be read critically.
• Oral vs. Written: The transition from oral tradition to written text might have introduced changes.

Historians study these sources, compare them with each other, and use information from other types of sources to reconstruct the history of these diverse and influential religious traditions in medieval India, understanding their role in shaping society, culture, and religious practices.

The Discovery Of Hampi

Hampi is the site of the ruins of the capital city of the Vijayanagara Empire (14th-16th centuries CE), one of the most powerful empires in South India. The city was renowned for its wealth, magnificent architecture, and thriving trade. After the decline of the empire, the city was largely abandoned and its glory forgotten until its 'discovery' by archaeologists and historians.

The "Discovery" Process:

• The ruins of Hampi were first brought to light in the 19th century by Colonel Colin Mackenzie, an engineer and antiquarian who worked for the British East India Company.
• He visited Hampi in 1800 and surveyed the site, preparing maps and sketches. He also collected information from local people about the history of the site.
• His work laid the foundation for future archaeological investigations at Hampi.
• Subsequent archaeologists, such as Alexander Greenlaw and John Marshall, continued to study the site, photograph the ruins, and excavate.

Sources for Hampi and Vijayanagara History:

• Archaeological remains: The extensive ruins of the city, including temples, palaces, gateways, fortifications, markets, streets, and irrigation systems. These provide direct evidence of the city's layout, architecture, urban planning, economy, and religious practices.
• Inscriptions: Numerous inscriptions found at Hampi and other parts of the Vijayanagara empire (on temples, pillars, rocks). They record grants to temples, achievements of rulers, social regulations, and information about trade and administration. Many are in regional languages like Kannada, Telugu, Tamil, and Sanskrit.
• Accounts by foreign travellers: Visitors from other countries during the Vijayanagara period also left valuable accounts. Examples include:
  • Nicolo de' Conti (Italian merchant, 15th century)
  • Abdur Razzaq (Persian ambassador, 15th century)
  • Domingo Paes and Fernao Nuniz (Portuguese travellers, 16th century) - who described the city and the empire in great detail, particularly the reign of Krishnadeva Raya.
• Indigenous literary sources: Writings in Sanskrit and regional languages (Kannada, Telugu, Tamil) from the Vijayanagara period. These include historical chronicles, biographies of rulers, religious texts, and literature, often patronised by the Vijayanagara rulers.

*(Image shows a photograph of the ruins of a prominent structure in Hampi, like the Vittala Temple or Virupaksha Temple)*

The 'discovery' of Hampi was a process of bringing together different types of sources – archaeological, epigraphic, and textual (foreign and indigenous) – to reconstruct the history of a major South Indian empire that had left behind impressive ruins but whose historical narrative was not widely known.

Questions In Search Of Answers (Vijayanagara Sources)

The various sources available for the history of the Vijayanagara Empire help historians address specific questions about its political, social, economic, and cultural life. Historians formulate questions and then use the sources to find answers, acknowledging where information is limited or contradictory.

Questions Addressed by Vijayanagara Sources:

• Political history: Who were the rulers? What were the dynasties? When did they rule? What were the major wars and conflicts? (Addressed by inscriptions, chronicles, foreign accounts).
• Administration: How was the empire administered? What were the different administrative divisions? What was the system of land revenue? (Addressed by inscriptions, chronicles, foreign accounts, sometimes literary works).
• Urban life: What was the capital city of Hampi like? What was its layout? What were the important buildings? What were the activities in the city? (Addressed particularly by archaeological remains and detailed descriptions by foreign travellers like Paes and Nuniz).
• Economy: What were the main economic activities? What was the nature of trade? What were the key products? What was the wealth of the empire? (Addressed by inscriptions (trade guilds, markets), foreign accounts (descriptions of markets, goods), and archaeological finds (coins, trade artifacts)).
• Social life: What were the different social groups? What were the social customs and practices? What was the position of women? (Addressed by inscriptions, literary works, and observations by foreign travellers).
• Religious life: What were the predominant religious traditions? What were the important temples and religious centres? What was the state's relationship with religious institutions? (Addressed by archaeological remains of temples, inscriptions related to temple grants, religious texts).
• Military system: What was the size and organisation of the army? What were the military strategies? (Addressed by chronicles and foreign accounts).

Challenges and Limitations:

• While foreign accounts are valuable, they are written from an external perspective and may contain biases, misunderstandings, or focus on aspects that were unusual to the traveller.
• Indigenous literary sources, while providing internal perspectives, may also have biases or be written with specific literary or religious purposes rather than purely historical ones.
• Archaeological evidence requires careful interpretation, especially in areas like social beliefs or political organisation, which are harder to infer from material remains alone.
• Many sources are available in regional languages (Kannada, Telugu, Tamil), requiring linguistic expertise.
• Information may be patchy or inconsistent across different sources.

Historians use a combination of these sources, weighing their reliability and biases, to build a comprehensive picture of the Vijayanagara Empire, seeking answers to the questions that drive their research.

Looking For Sources (Mughal Agrarian)

Understanding the agrarian history of the Mughal Empire (16th-18th centuries CE), i.e., the history of agriculture, land relations, and rural society, requires examining specific types of sources that provide relevant data.

Historians looking to reconstruct the agrarian history of the Mughal Empire primarily rely on official records and chronicles produced by the Mughal administration and court.

Primary Sources for Mughal Agrarian History:

• Ain-i Akbari: Authored by Abu'l Fazl Allami, a court historian of Emperor Akbar. This is a detailed administrative manual of Akbar's empire. It contains extensive information on land revenue system, land classification, prices, wages, agricultural produce, and statistics for different regions (subahs). It is an invaluable source for understanding the agrarian and economic conditions during Akbar's reign.
• Official Chronicles: Histories written by court historians at the command of the emperor (e.g., Akbarnama by Abu'l Fazl, Badshah Nama by Abdul Hamid Lahori). While focused on political events and the emperor's life, they sometimes contain information about agricultural activities, rural life, or government policies related to land.
• Farmans (Royal orders), Nishans (Orders by Princes), dastur-ul-amals (Regulations): Official documents related to land grants, revenue collection, administrative rules for the provinces. These provide direct evidence of state policies and practices affecting agriculture and land relations.
• Account books and revenue records: Records kept by local officials regarding land measurements, revenue collection, and land transactions. While fewer of these survive, they provide micro-level details.
• Accounts by foreign travellers: Travellers like François Bernier, Jean-Baptiste Tavernier, and Niccolò Manucci described the rural landscape, cultivation practices, condition of peasants, and the land ownership system (though their observations need critical evaluation).
• Indigenous literary sources: Regional chronicles, local histories, literature in regional languages might sometimes contain information about agrarian life.

*(Image shows a photograph of a page from a manuscript of the Ain-i Akbari)*

Using these diverse sources, historians can analyse patterns of land ownership, land use, agricultural production, revenue administration, the impact of state policies on peasants, and the social structure of rural society during the Mughal period.

The Ain-I Akbari Of Abu’L Fazl Allami

The Ain-i Akbari is a key historical source for understanding the Mughal Empire, particularly during the reign of Emperor Akbar (1556-1605 CE). It is a unique document providing detailed administrative and statistical information.

The Ain-i Akbari was written by Abu'l Fazl Allami, one of the Navaratnas (nine jewels) in Akbar's court and his close friend and advisor. It is the third book of the larger historical chronicle, the Akbarnama (History of Akbar).

Structure and Content of Ain-i Akbari:

• Ain-i Akbari is essentially an administrative gazetteer and statistical abstract of Akbar's empire.
• It is divided into five books or 'Ains'.
• Book I: Ain-i Manzil Abadi: Deals with the royal household, court, and Akbar's daily life.
• Book II: Ain-i Sipah Abadi: Deals with the military, civil officials, and servants.
• Book III: Ain-i Mulk Abadi: Deals with the empire's administration, including the land revenue system, land assessment, and statistics for each of the empire's provinces (subahs). This book is the most valuable for understanding the agrarian economy and administration. It provides data on land classification, revenue rates, cultivated crops, etc.
• Book IV: Deals with Indian philosophy, science, social customs, and religion. Includes a section on the subahs (provinces) with their geography, population, and resources.
• Book V: Contains Akbar's sayings and a biographical account of Abu'l Fazl.

Significance of Ain-i Akbari as a Source:

• Detailed and systematic data: It provides a wealth of quantitative and qualitative data about the Mughal administration, economy, and society, unprecedented for its time.
• Agrarian information: Book III is particularly important for agrarian history, providing detailed information about the land revenue system (zabt system), assessment methods, types of land, and agricultural produce across different regions.
• Administrative structure: It describes the structure of the administration, the roles of different officials, and the regulations followed.
• Akbar's policies: It reflects Akbar's administrative policies, particularly his efforts for standardisation and centralisation.
• Abu'l Fazl's perspective: As a courtier and loyal supporter of Akbar, Abu'l Fazl's account reflects the official perspective and might sometimes present an idealised view of the administration and the emperor's reign.

Limitations:

• The Ain-i Akbari provides a static picture of the empire at a specific point in time (around 1598 CE, when it was completed). It doesn't fully capture the dynamic changes occurring over Akbar's long reign or the inconsistencies in implementation across different regions.
• The accuracy of some of the statistical data has been debated by modern historians.
• It reflects the perspective from the court and administration, not necessarily the reality experienced by peasants or common people.

Despite these limitations, the Ain-i Akbari remains an indispensable source for studying the Mughal Empire, providing unique insights into its administrative machinery, economic organisation, and the vastness of its resources.

The Production Of Chronicles (Mughal)

Chronicles, or histories written during the reign of rulers, are important sources for understanding the political events and court life of empires like the Mughals. The production of these chronicles was often a collaborative and intricate process.

From Turkish To Persian

• The Mughal emperors were of Chagatai Turkic origin. The first Mughal emperor, Babur, wrote his autobiography, the Baburnama, in Turkic (Chagatai Turkic).
• However, Persian gradually became the language of the Mughal court and administration.
• Most Mughal chronicles, including the official histories commissioned by emperors, were written in Persian.
• Example: Humayun Nama (written in Persian by Gulbadan Begum, Humayun's sister), Akbarnama (written in Persian by Abu'l Fazl), Jahangirnama (autobiography of Jahangir, mostly in Persian), Badshah Nama (written in Persian by Abdul Hamid Lahori and others, chronicling Shah Jahan's reign), Alamgir Nama (written in Persian by Muhammad Kazim, chronicling the first 10 years of Aurangzeb's reign).
• The shift to Persian reflects its status as a language of culture, administration, and diplomacy in the region at that time.

The Making Of Manuscripts

Mughal chronicles were produced in the form of beautifully illustrated and calligraphed manuscripts. The creation of these manuscripts was a collective effort involving various skilled individuals in the royal atelier (Kitabkhana).

• Paper makers: Prepared the paper.
• Scribes/Calligraphers: Wrote the text. Different styles of calligraphy were used.
• Illuminators: Decorated the pages with intricate designs and borders.
• Painters: Created miniature paintings illustrating scenes from the chronicle. These paintings are highly valuable historical sources themselves, depicting court life, battles, ceremonies, flora, and fauna.
• Bookbinders: Assembled the pages and created the covers.

The production of a single royal manuscript was a lengthy and expensive process, indicating the importance attached to documenting the emperor's reign and achievements. These manuscripts were often kept in the royal library or presented as gifts.

*(Image shows a page from a Mughal historical manuscript featuring both text (in Persian) and a miniature painting illustrating a scene)*

Mughal chronicles, as primary sources, provide insights into the emperors' reigns, political events, administrative policies, and courtly culture. However, as official histories, they tend to glorify the ruler and may omit or downplay unfavorable events, requiring critical reading by historians.

The Painted Image (Mughal Sources)

Miniature paintings found in Mughal chronicles and albums are significant historical sources that go beyond just illustrating the text. They provide visual information about various aspects of Mughal life, society, and culture.

Mughal emperors were great patrons of painting. Painters in the royal atelier created vibrant miniature paintings that were included in historical chronicles (like Akbarnama, Jahangirnama, Badshah Nama) and in separate albums.

What Mughal Paintings Tell Us:

• Court life and ceremonies: Paintings depict emperors holding court, receiving ambassadors, celebrating festivals, holding hunting parties, darbars (assemblies). They show the grandeur of the court, the hierarchy of the nobility, clothing styles, and rituals.
• Political events: Scenes of battles, sieges, coronations, imperial tours, and meetings with foreign dignitaries are depicted.
• Social life: Paintings show different social groups, their activities, attire, and customs. Scenes of markets, villages, and interactions between people from different backgrounds can be found.
• Architecture: Detailed depictions of palaces, forts, gardens, mosques, and other buildings of the Mughal era.
• Technology and equipment: Illustrations of weapons, tools, vehicles, and technologies used in warfare, daily life, and craftsmanship.
• Flora and fauna: Paintings often include detailed depictions of plants, animals, and birds, reflecting the natural world as perceived by the Mughals.
• Artistic style and techniques: The paintings themselves are evidence of the development of Mughal miniature painting style, influenced by Persian, Indian, and European traditions.

*(Image shows a photograph of a detailed Mughal miniature painting, perhaps a court scene, a hunting scene, or an event from a chronicle)*

Using Paintings as Historical Sources:

• Historians analyse paintings for visual details that might not be explicitly mentioned in written texts.
• They can help in understanding the visual representation of power, social hierarchies, and cultural values.
• Paintings can provide insights into aspects like fashion, hairstyles, furniture, and daily objects.
• However, paintings, especially those in royal chronicles, are often idealised portrayals meant to glorify the emperor. They may not always represent a realistic picture and should be interpreted with caution, cross-referencing with other sources.

The painted image is a rich and unique source that complements written chronicles, offering a visual window into the world of the Mughal Empire.

Beyond The Frontiers (Jesuits at Mughal Court as source)

While Mughal chronicles provide an internal view of the empire, accounts by visitors from outside its immediate political and cultural sphere offer valuable external perspectives. Visitors such as European travellers and emissaries, including Jesuit missionaries, provide insights into the Mughal court and Indian society, which can be compared with indigenous sources.

The Safavids And Qandahar

The Mughal Empire had significant interactions with neighbouring powers, particularly the Safavid dynasty of Persia (Iran). These interactions, often involving diplomatic exchanges and conflicts over territories like Qandahar (modern Afghanistan/Pakistan), are documented in Mughal chronicles and also in Persian sources from the Safavid court.

• Mughal chronicles describe relations with the Safavids, including embassies exchanged and military campaigns for Qandahar.
• Sources from the Safavid side provide their perspective on these interactions.
• These interactions were important for trade routes and political influence in the region.

The Ottomans: Pilgrimage And Trade

The Mughals also had indirect interactions and connections with the Ottoman Empire (Turkey), primarily through pilgrimage routes and trade.

• Indian Muslims undertaking the Hajj pilgrimage to Mecca and Medina often travelled through Ottoman territories.
• Trade routes connected the Mughal Empire with the Middle East and beyond, including parts of the Ottoman Empire.
• While direct political ties were limited, the exchange of people, goods, and ideas through these routes is reflected in various sources.

Jesuits At The Mughal Court

Jesuit missionaries from Europe (part of the Society of Jesus) visited the Mughal court, particularly during the reigns of Akbar, Jahangir, and Shah Jahan. They came with the aim of promoting Christianity and engaging in religious and intellectual discussions with the emperor and courtiers.

• Akbar, in his quest for understanding different religions, invited Jesuit priests to his court at Fatehpur Sikri and later Agra.
• Jesuits like Rodolfo Acquaviva, Antonio Monserrate, Jerome Xavier spent time at the court.
• They wrote detailed letters and accounts describing their experiences at the court, their interactions with the emperor, religious debates, Mughal society, and aspects of the administration.

Significance of Jesuit Accounts:

• Provide an external perspective on the Mughal court, emperor's personality, religious policies, and intellectual life.
• Describe events and aspects of court life that may not be fully covered in official Mughal chronicles (which had their own agenda).
• Offer insights into the European perception of the Mughal Empire at that time.

Like other foreign accounts, Jesuit writings should be read critically, considering their missionary objectives and cultural background. However, they are valuable sources that supplement indigenous chronicles and provide a more layered understanding of the Mughal period.